Psychology of Sport

PSYCHOLOGY OF SPORT : THE MENTAL PREPARATION

OF ELITE ATHLETES

Introduction

Becoming an elite athlete means more than being good at something. It is due to passion that certain individuals choose to dedicate themselves to this lifestyle. In order to become a successful athlete, these individuals must engage in excessive physical training as a way of developing proper technique and skills to compete. However, what differentiates athletes who perform well under pressure and those who are unable to overcome even the smallest events? What is it that allows for one athlete to excel over others who go through similar training? The response is their mental abilities. Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, a basketball player, once said “Your mind is what makes everything else work.” This is very true. What use does intense training have if one is too overwhelmed by the crowd, the competitors, and the overall pressure? Sport psychology can be defined as the study of psychological and mental factors that are associated with the performance of sport, exercise, or physical activity in general. However, it’s more than just a study. By investigating how people think, feel, and behave during sport-related situations athletes can make improvements in their performance. To generalize the psychology of sport, there are four main mental qualities an athlete must have in order to triumph in his/her career. These qualities include commitment, concentration, confidence, and control.

Chapter 1 : Commitment

When an individual solely decides to become an athlete, commitment is required. They must be willing to sacrifice a lot of time to training and must be focused on keep a strong mentality throughout their career. They will be responsible for managing their daily lives accordingly and be able to find a balance between work, social life, relationships, family and friends, other activities, and so on. Commitment can be diminished if the athlete is feeling anxious about competition, developed an injury, are getting bored of their training, do not enjoy their schedule, if their coach demonstrates poor leadership skills, and so on. In order to stay committed, elite athletes may refer to the method of “Treeing” as well as proper management.

“Be where you are not where you aren’t”

Successful athletes are able to do their best at every competition without being distracted by their thoughts. This requires a great deal of concentration and may take longer to accomplish depending on the background of the individual. Regardless of their struggles and challenges outside the sports world athletes must be able to revert their focus on the competition and nothing else. Even as a regular individual one will encounter many difficulties in life that may cause a person to become overwhelmed during important events. Athletes must have the ability to set these problems aside when they step on the field, track, etc. or else they will not be able to perform well. If competing is what an individual has decided to take part in, they might as well give it their all and be able to set other problems aside and only worry about the competition for the time being. Athletes may resume back to thinking and dealing with their other issues as soon as they’ve returned from their competition. (Notes by Karen Kurlicki, Method of “Tree-ing”)

Proper management

By properly managing their time athletes will become better committed as their schedule is balanced. Having a routine is very helpful as the athlete will become accustomed to their workout schedule and will know what to expect each day. Athletes have a lot on their plate. They must be responsible for going on tours as a way of promoting themselves, training to compete, perform both individual and group training, study, go to meetings, and so on.

Having a training calendar and journal will be very helpful with workouts because they will keep information and details organized. Athletes will have an easier time managing themselves if they are able to record what they eat, how they train, etc. on paper. With the help of a professional they can learn the habits and skills an athlete must develop and go through these processes to improve their performance. They will be responsible for finding a personal trainer or psychologist to guide them on their journey as an athlete. These are all helpful tools that will help athletes better manage themselves.

It is also important for athletes to manage their time wisely. To do so they must be be very good at goal setting (SMART), prioritize, be efficient, know exactly what to focus on/what not to focus on, and be fully aware of what needs to be done. .Source: http://www.ausport.gov.au/sportscoachmag/planning/blending_sport_and_study_a_time_management

Shawn Johnson

All athletes must be committed to their training. Shawn Johnson, who was an olympic gymnast started her training at the age of 3. She states that during this time she had only been doing it for enjoyment. Once she got to higher levels she decided that she wanted to become an elite gymnast. By eighth grade she attended full days of school and then headed straight to 4-hour workouts. On Saturdays she would spend 5 hours working out and took her Sundays off. Practice involves proper stretching, endurance training, 30 minutes of conditioning, and about 50 minutes at each event. She also does a fair share of strength training which would include exercises such as push-ups and pull-ups. In total, this is about 40 hours a week of training.

Johnson also had to pay extra attention to her diet. She eats very healthy and in reasonable proportions. According to an interview that was done in 2013 by Lauren Cardarelli, she follows the Paleo diet, which she describes as “healthy & clean”.

Source: http://www.fitnessmagazine.com/workout/real-plans/celebrity/what-it-takes-to-be-an-olympic-athlete/?page=4

Chapter 2 : Concentration

Concentration is an important concept in sport psychology. It is the ability to focus on a given task for a duration of time, no matter how distracting the surrounding environment may be. Lack of concentration causes an athlete’s ability to be less effective during competition and that would be a waste considering they go through intense training. By developing higher levels of concentration, an athlete has the ability to absorb more information at a given moment, whether it be observing details of the opponent or adapting to the environment.

It’s not easy to maintain concentration if distractions are in the way. Some examples of internal distractors might include:

Fatigue-it is hard to stay focused if one does not have the energy to do so
Anxiety-can widen attentional field causing the athlete to focus on unimportant details
Negativity-results in a lower self-esteem and individual ends up lacking belief in oneself
Worries-about an unfortunate past, failure, the future, family

Some examples of external distractors include:

Visual- a large crowd, cameras, scoreboard, competitors, etc.
Auditory-talking, screaming, laughing, announcements, music, etc.
Gamesmanship-trash-talk, gossip

It is important to keep in mind that every athlete is different. They may have either a broad narrow continuum, which allows an athlete to focus on both a small and large number of stimuli, or they could have an internal external continuum, where the athlete focuses on both the internal stimuli (i.e feelings) or external stimuli (i.e puck, ball, shuttlecock). These are types of attention span that would help an athlete decide which methods of concentration are best suited for them.

Types of concentration can also be related to the type of sport. Sustained concentration is when the person remains focused on the task at hand for as long as possible. This is commonly needed in tennis, distance running, cycling, swimming, etc. Short bursts of concentration are required in sports such as golf, cricket, ball throw, etc. Intense concentration, when focus is needed at all times, is required in sports such as sprinting, skiing, gymnastics, etc.

The main reason why concentration is such an important skill to have is because the environment is always rapidly changing, and to shift focus, avoid distractions, and be on the lookout for “cues” can be extremely difficult to do all at once. For example, a tennis player must sort out all the cues of the opponent. Before the opponent even serves the ball, the athlete observes his/her wrist rotation, angle of the arm, and form. Once the ball has been hit, the athlete then analyzes the speed at which the ball is going and in which direction. This process occurs within seconds and is followed by quick strategizing.

Figure 1.0 is a diagram which represents the attentional theory of sport psychology, which appeared as the work of Easterbrook (1959) and further analyzed by Watchel (1967) and Bacon (1974).

The theory states that an individual’s attention will lie within any two continuums. One of the continuums consist of external and internal focus of attention. While the other continuum focuses on the broad and narrow focus of attention. These continuums can be crossed, creating four quadrants. In each quadrant are attentional strength; a task in which the individual carries out while their attention is in that quadrant. The broad external quadrant has to do with assessment. In this quadrant the competitor assesses the environment and looks for cues. The narrow external quadrant is where the athlete acts and reacts to the environmental cues. The broad internal quadrant is where analysis and strategizing occurs. The narrow internal quadrant is where visualization happens. This is when the athlete imagines his/her performance before it actually occurs. Source: http://www.athleticinsight.com/Vol1Iss3/Tennis_Zone.htm

Common strategies

The most common and small strategies used to improve concentration include simulation training, trigger words, “parking thoughts”, staying in the “here and now”, being positive and many more.

Simulation training is when an athlete identifies the distractions that are present during competition and find ways to incorporate them into training. This allows the athlete to overcome distractions by being constantly exposed to them. If the athlete is used to having these distractions around, they are set and ready to take on any boundaries that come their way during competition

Trigger words are simple and short words or phrases that will help remind a person of what it is he/she must remain focused on. They can be spoken or placed on any of the player’s belonging to help remind them of their goals and why they are driven to win a certain meet, game, etc.

Parking thoughts has to do with shutting out any thoughts or problems an athlete is dealing with in their personal lives and leaving it for later. This is especially hard with so many distractions and expectations to overcome but if one can manage this, he/she should have a great advantage over other competitors. (discussed previously, credits to Karen Kurlicki for notes)

Staying in the “here and now” has to do with remaining in the present and not thinking too far ahead. Routines are small practices that occur before a game or competition starts that can help athletes do this. For example, basketball players might position themselves at the free throw line and do a couple of shots, making sure to take deep breaths, properly bending and unbending their knees, then flicking the wrist and repeating the motion as many times as possible before they begin their first play

Being positive is what an athlete should be doing after he/she has lost. Athletes should not say that they are bad because this will lower their confidence, which would then diminish their concentration on the things that are important, and that is to do better next time.They should analyze the competition, learn what they did wrong and think of ways to improve on their techniques and prepare for their next opportunity instead of being distracted by their own negativity.

Source: http://www.ausport.gov.au/ais/sssm/psychology/brainwaves/factsheets/concentration

Hypnosis

Hypnosis refers to the alteration of concentration levels. It is the state of concentration in which the mind is completely calm, and has the capability to control a person’s actions while most external stimuli is absent. Every person in the world goes through hypnosis at least twice a day. It happens when one goes to bed and wakes up in the morning. Daydreaming is also an example of hypnosis.

The reason why hypnosis is used as a method of improving concentration is because human beings can change their beliefs and thoughts significantly enough to allow their bodies to react to situations a certain way. With this, an athlete can enhance his/her technique, speed, and mental strength by acting out a scenario in a trance-like state. If an athlete were interested in hypnosis, they would approach a specialized therapist who would then carry out three stages of hypnosis : induction, hypnotic, and wake-up. Source:http://www.brianmac.co.uk/articles/scni12a1.htm

1) During the induction phase, a therapist attempts to put a person in an overly relaxed and calming state. Normally, the subject will feel drowsy at this point and will be mostly receptive to the suggestions of the therapist. The subject will then go from a neutral hypnosis state to a waking hypnosis, where the subject willingly carries out the therapist’s suggestions.

2) Once the subject reaches the hypnosis phase the therapist will give suggestions that should help the athlete improve in actual competition. Examples would be “You will stick your landing.” “You will qualify for nationals”, “You will remain calm and relaxed once the gun fires”

3) The wake-up phase is when the subject comes out of the trance. This is discussed before the timing and signal for this is discussed between the therapist and the subject before the hypnotizing occurs.

Having a therapist to aid with hypnosis is known as hetero hypnosis. An athlete can also perform self-hypnosis. To do so, competitors must be able to control their conscious attention in one area and be able to calm themselves and achieve complete relaxation. Once they have mastered these two techniques, they will be able to move forward and be able to repeat the process of visualizing success in challenges.

(Exercise science : An introduction to health and physical education, 272).

Meditation

Meditation is incredibly useful for enhancing concentration. The most common form of meditation is called transcendental meditation.

Transcendental meditation involves sitting in a dark room as one’s eyes are closed and there is complete silence. No special equipment is needed in this type and it usually lasts for 20 minutes, which is a long time but with practice it becomes easier. The key thing about meditation is that the individual must do his/her best to block out all thoughts in order to harmonize the mind. By doing so, one is allowing for muscles to relax which would reduce stress and increase tolerance levels.

Repeating mantras is another way to meditate. A mantra is a word, phrase, quote, or a sound that is repeated. It should be meaningful and uplifting. The person must then sit quietly while repeating the mantra over and over again for as long as possible.

Breathing practices also helps with meditation. It helps to calm nerves. Unlike the other two practices, this one might be more effective if the individual is lying down with their hand over their belly. The key here is to focus on breathing. Take deep breaths and repeat. Clear the mind of worrying thoughts.

The more athletes meditate the better they can control their attention. This method is very useful when a competitor finds it difficult to remain calm when a number of distractors exist in so many forms and directions. Source: http://www.livestrong.com/article/106002-meditation-techniques-sports/.

Chapter 3 : Confidence

Confidence is having certainty over one’s thoughts and feelings. It is having faith in one’s abilities to achieve certain goals. With it, an athlete is able to remain positive, resilient, determined, positive and controlled.

Low confidence commonly leads to poor performance due to the anxiety and stress that comes along with it. Having doubts, not taking risks, hesitating to put in full effort, and seeing mistakes as failure rather than learning opportunities, are all signs that an athlete’s confidence is not very high and so he/she must work on rebuilding it to improve mentality and thus enhance performance.

Athletes may lose confidence due to failure. These failures can include simple mistakes in sports such as missing an easy pass in hockey or not sticking a landing in gymnastics, or they can be major errors that end up making sports history such as missing a penalty kick in champions. Because athletes train to compete for a living failure is definitely hard to take. It will cause these individuals to lose faith in themselves and the slightest doubts can get to them, resulting in poor performance. They may also lose confidence if they are dealing with other issues unrelated to sports such as disputes, deaths, and/or illness. Keep in mind that it is also important for an athlete to not always expect success and become overconfident. This type of mentality will lead to fear of failure, which can be harmful to the athlete’s career.

Source:http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-power-prime/200911/sports-introduction-confidence

Furthermore, “A misconception that many athletes have is that confidence is something that is inborn or that if you don't have it at an early age, you will never have confidence. In reality, confidence is a skill, much like technical skills, that can be learned” (Taylor, 2009). Therefore, with the use of imagery/visualization, goal setting, and different methods of motivation, athletes will be able to master this “skill”.

Imagery and visualization

The saying “Seeing is believing” is highly relevant with the method of imagery/visualization in sports psychology (Exercise science : An introduction to health and physical education, 271). This method is used by athletes to imagine their course of action in their minds.

Psychologists may work with these athletes in order to assist them in the process of imagining themselves succeeding. By picturing moments of great achievement an athlete will be reminded of their capabilities hence, gaining more confidence. Athletes may also be advised to picture themselves in a comfortable position in a quiet and calm environment if they have trouble relaxing before competitions. It is most effective when competitors are able to incorporate all of their senses when visualizing their performance. (Exercise science : An introduction to health and physical education, 271).

An American Fitness article titled “Think Yourself Fit!” (2013), written by Lee Middleton mentions a scientific study conducted in the United States that explores the method of visualization. It was led by Paul Kersey at the University of Idaho and his objective was to see whether his participants would demonstrate higher performance when picturing themselves doing an intense workout compared to physically performing a normal workout. As a result, it was concluded that when the clients only visualized, their minds were convinced that their bodies were partaking in a physical workout. There was no differentiation between the two situations. This goes to show how powerful the mind can be. It also indicates that if athletes were to master and be able to control their minds using the technique of imagery and visualization in this way, they would be able to improve their overall fitness level as well as their confidence by a vast amount. Elizabeth Quinn, an exercise physiologist and fitness consultant, is mentioned in the article saying “Many elite athletes routinely use visualization techniques as a part of training and competition. There are many stories of athletes who've used these techniques to cultivate not only a competitive edge, but also to create renewed mental awareness, a heightened sense of well-being and confidence. All of these factors have been show to contribute to an athlete's sports success."

Goal Setting

No matter what or how many goals an athlete may have, it is important that he/she has a transparent vision of what it is they want to achieve. This will allow athletes plan ahead and know exactly what they need to improve on and what not to put too much effort in. With this knowledge they can adjust their training and manage their time accordingly. As the goals set by these athletes are met, they will begin to realize a gain in confidence as they will recognize their ability to be successful and reach the goals they make. Source: http://www.mindtools.com/page6.html

These goals may either be objective or subjective goals. Objective goals are specific and normally quantitative. A good example would be if a sprinter were working towards beating his/her own time record or a high jumper wanted to achieve a great height. Subjective goals are more general. For example a volleyball player just wants to play better overall in the next game.

A basic model for creating goals is the S.M.A.R.T principle.

Specific-is definite and explicit. When setting specific goals it is is important that one has the answer to all six W’s. Who?What?Where?When?Which? and Why? By determining details of the goal such as the date the one will reach this goal, the time it will take to achieve the goal, and at what amounts the goal should be approached, one will be able to better measure progress.

Measurable- is quantifiable. For example, the measurable goal can be the time between the present and target date at which the goal is reached, or a specific time for a sprint.

Attainable - is something an athlete is capable of accomplishing and sees as important. As one becomes stronger goals become more attainable. This is when higher goals are set.

Realistic- is not above and beyond an athlete’s limitations. Is reasonable, controllable, and achievable. The goal should comply with the amount of effort and time the athlete is willing to put in .

Timely- can be accomplished within a time frame. This will create a certain urgency. It will better motivate athletes if they must reach the goal at a certain time.

(Exercise science : An introduction to health and physical education, 273). Also see more at http://topachievement.com/smart.html

Motivation

Motivation is required for any athlete who wants to succeed in their career. It is the desire and initiative an individual has to achieve a goal and will be incredibly beneficial to an athlete who is striving to be their best. It is needed in practice sessions, personal training, and on the playing field. Motivation can come from anything and it can vary depending on what is important to different individuals. It is also something athletes can control and develop overtime. Therefore with motivation, athletes can improve their abilities and perform at full potential.

There are four basic principles of motivation. Knowing these basic concepts will allow for one to better understand what motivation means to athletes.

Personal traits versus the environment

This principle states that motivation can be determined according to both the environment and innate traits. Many individuals are commonly misunderstood for not being motivated due to the fact that they personally lack determination or the willingness to improve. However, an athlete’s surroundings is just as important and can play a huge role in an athlete’s development in motivation.

Multiple motives

Athletes consider a number of things when working towards a goal. They are driven by not one motive but many. These motives could be the desire to impress certain individuals, the urge to represent their country and make citizens proud, to make history, become famous and well-known, etc. It is also important to keep in mind that both athletes and coaches understand that motivation may change over a period of time. Knowing this, athletes can and coaches can decide on what methods of motivation are appropriate for an elite team or athlete.

Staying motivated

It is important for athletes to maintain their motivation throughout their training. Throughout certain parts of their career they may feel slightly bored with their routine and this may lead to lack of motivation, thus diminishing the chances of achieving the number of goals set previously. One way of avoiding this “staleness” would be to change the workout to make it possibly more challenging, have team bonding sessions, or train in different locations and environments.

Leadership

It is just as important for the coach of an elite athlete to know how to motivate their trainee as it is for the athlete to motivate themselves. Some coaches may have better leadership skills than others. The best coaches are the ones who can challenge the team/individuals while also providing them with encouragement and positivity.

(Exercise science : An introduction to health and physical education, 272-273)

Wise Words of Michael Jordan

A prime example of an elite athlete who demonstrates great confidence in his career is Michael Jordan, an american professional basketball player who is an inspiration to many. One of the advice he gives to fellow athletes is “Have total confidence in what you can do. If you have 100 percent confidence that you can pull off a shot, most of the time you will.” He mentions another athlete who demonstrates great confidence and that is Tiger woods :

“One time we're at Isleworth playing for a little money, and he has me 1 down on the 17th hole, a par 5, and I'm getting a shot, so I think I'm in good shape. We get up to his ball, and he's 267 yards from the green, downhill lie, and he's in a divot. I'm thinking he's gotta lay up. Not Tiger. He takes his 5-wood, puts it back in his stance and just wails it. The ball took off like a freakin' laser, right onto the green. The guy makes eagle, and I'm saying, ‘This is crazy.’ But that's Tiger.” Source: http://www.golfdigest.com/magazine/2009-11/10_rules_michael_jordan#ixzz2qQaMZe1G

Chapter 4 : Control

To have control may be one of the most valuable skills an athlete can have, whether it be physical or emotional control. The ability for an athlete to maintain control over their emotions when experiencing devastation, stress, or anxiety will work wonders in their career. By having a control, an athlete will be able to better manage their confidence, commitment, as well as concentration. With positive self talk, stress management, and methods of dealing with distractions, athletes will have greater control over their thoughts and become a better athlete.

Source: http://www.brianmac.co.uk/psych.htm

Control is commonly linked to emotion. Therefore it is important to understand what this is in order to be able to conquer it. Mark V. Jones who studied at Staffordshire University establishes a list of characteristics of emotional response in his research (2003).

Physiological changes- as a response to emotion physiological changes will occur. One example of this is when someone is embarrassed they tend to blush. Physical changes in facial expression may also occur and these are thought to be important in the emotion process. Physiological arousal may determine the intensity of some emotions. For example high arousal will accompany emotions such as excitement while low arousal will accompany emotions such as sadness.

Subjective Experience-refers to what an athlete experiences during an emotional episode. If a soccer player scores a goal but the referee calls it off, he/she will become angry or when a rugby player misses a tackle he/she may become frustrated or disappointed. Subjective experience is commonly examined in sport psychology.

Action tendencies-are certain actions carried out that would “mediate and energize subsequent behaviours.” For example a volleyball player who is not very confident during competition do to previous errors may not ask to be set as much in order to avoid making more mistakes.

Relaxation/Arousal regulations (self-talk)

In most cases athletes will experience emotions such as anxiety or stress when entering competitions. They may have physical symptoms such as nausea or sweating, or mental symptoms such as negative thoughts, dizziness, or difficulty focusing. Sports psychologists have found a way to control these reactions by way of relaxation. By putting the body in a calming state the athlete will rid themselves of stress or anxiety and thus improve their performance.

The following methods help with relaxation :

Self-talk-should be positive and reassuring. Can be a “script” that is recited before competition or a few words to help motivate the athlete

Breathing control exercises-will stimulate the parasympathetic system and decrease heart rate, blood pressure, etc.

Take time to do something enjoyable-this can be anything like listening to music, dancing, reading a book, etc.

Review goals-go through goals quietly in one’s mind and then say them out loud before competing

(Exercise science : An introduction to health and physical education, 272)

John Mcenroe loses Control

In 1984 Mcenroe entered the French Open after consistently winning the previous year. He won Ivan Lendl in the first two sets and tied in the third. During this stressful moment he raged in public because the noises that came from the cameraman’s headset were distracting him. After this outburst he lost the next five sets. Surprising, there are many other moments similar to this where Mcenroe goes into a tantrum, yells at the umpire, or swears due to frustration and overall pressure of the competition. He is well known for these outbursts but they are most definitely nothing to be proud of. For an elite athlete this behaviour is very immature, unnecessary, and gives him a bad reputation. However, years later he says “If you start lashing out when things are going well, you may be letting your opponent think that you’re not as sure of yourself as you seem.”, showing that he learned from his mistakes.

Source : http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-top-10-biggest-sports-fails-of-all-time-45134/

The following links are examples of videos that show John Mcenroe’s lack of control in his competitions: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C8Nyc9jzSDg and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ekQ_Ja02gTY

Control is one of the most important characteristics an athlete may have. It is what determines how well an elite athlete can focus, if they can manage their training and time wisely, and whether they can approach challenges with confidence.

Conclusion

In conclusion, sports psychology has helped elite athletes tremendously. It has provided individuals with the knowledge required to cope and deal with the many consequences that come along with being a professional athlete. With this study in place athletes are better informed of the characteristics needed to perform at a professional level and can excel. The psychology of sports has changed the lives of many individuals and has been the reason why many elite athletes have succeeded in their careers and become an inspiration to others. By strengthening their minds and having control over their thoughts and emotions these elite athletes will be able to remain committed in their career, improve concentration and focus, develop great confidence, and gain control. These are the four basic concepts of what it means to compete in sports at a professional level.

“Champions aren't made in the gyms. Champions are made from something they have deep inside them -- a desire, a dream, a vision.” -Muhammad Ali (World HeavyWeight Champion Boxer)

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